Maslow’s theory of motivation

Maslow’s need priority model is one of the most widely referred to theories of motivation. Abraham Maslow, a clinical psychologist, thought (1943) that a person’s motivational needs could be arranged in a hierarchical manner, starting in an ascending order from the lowest to the highest needs and concluded that once a given level of needs (set of needs) was satisfied, if ceased to be a motivator. The next higher level of need to be motivated in order to motivate the individual. Although the hierarchical aspects of Maslow’s theory are subject to question and often not accepted, his identification of basic needs has been fairly popular.
The five categories of needs may be described as follows:

1. Physiological NeedsThese are the basic needs for sustaining human life itself: needs for food, drink, shelter, clothing, sleep, sex etc. Man can live on bread alone, if there is no bread. But once these basic needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate.
2. Safety NeedsSafety or securing needs are concerned with freedom from physical or psychological (mental) harm, danger, deprivation or threat, such as loss of jobs, property, food, clothing or shelter.
3. Social Or Affiliation Or Acceptance NeedsThese are belongingness needs emanating from human instinct of affiliation or association with others. These include owners, love and affection, needs of mutual relations, identification with some group etc. These are the needs more of mind and spirit than of physique.
4. Esteem NeedsThis set of needs represents higher level needs. These needs represent needs for self-respect, respect of others a general feeling of being worthwhile, competence, achievement, knowledge, independence, reputation, status and recognition.
5. Self-Actualization NeedsThis set of higher order needs concerns with reaching one’s potential as a total human being. It is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming, i.e. to maximum one’s capacity and abilities in order to accomplish something appreciable and self-fulfilling. It is a need for being creative or innovative, for transforming self into reality

Various definitions of Management

ManagementIt is very difficult to give a precise definition of the term management. Different management authors have viewed management from their own angles moreover, during the evolutionary process of management different thinkers laid emphasis on different expects. For example, F.W. Taylor emphasized engineering aspects, Elton Mayo laid emphasis on human relations aspects, E.F.L, Brech, George R. Terry emphasis on, decision making aspect, Ralph Davis stresses leadership aspect and some other like Barry Richman etc. emphasized integration or coordination aspect.
Some Important Definition of Management
1. Harold KoontzManagement is the art of getting things done through and with people in formally organized groups.
2. George R. TerryManagement is a disconnect process consisting of planning organizing activating and controlling performed to determine and accomplish the objectives by the use of people and resources.
3. Donald J. CoughManagement is the art and science of decision making and leadership.
4. Mary Cushing NileGood Management, or scientific management, achieves a social objective with the best use of human and material energy and time, and with satisfaction for the participants and the public.
5. Henry FayolTo manage is to forecast, to plan, to organize, to command, to coordinate, and to control.
6. Theo Haimann and William ScottManagement is a social and technical process which utilizes, resources, influences, human action and facilitates changes in order to accomplish organizatinal goals.
Thus, the above definitions bring out that

• Management us a social and technical process
• It consists of planning, organizing staffing, leading decision making coordinating and controlling.
• It is concerned with getting done i.e. accomplished pre-determined objective by the use of people and resources.
• It helps in the creation, direction, maintenance and operation of organization.
• It secures maximum benefits for the employer, the employees, and the community.

Unfair Labour practices

Unfair Labour practices on the part of workmen: 

It has been defined in section 64 of the Ordinance which is given below:
 No workman or trade union of workmen shall:
(a) persuade a workman to join or refrain from joining a trade union during working hours; or
(b) intimidate any person to become, or refrain from becoming, or to continue to be or to cease to be a member or office-bearer of a trade union; or
(c) induce any person to refrain from becoming, or cease to be a member or office-bearer of a trade union by intimidating or conferring or offering to confer any advantage on or by procuring or offering to confer any advantage on or by procuring or offering to procure any advantage for such person or any other person; or
(d) compel or attempt to compel the employer to accept any demand by using intimidation, coercion, pressure, threat, confinement or ouster from a place, dispossession, assault, physical injury, disconnection of telephone, water or power facilities or by such other methods; or
(e) compel or attempt to compel any member of a body, bipartite or tripartite or of any composition, relating to the functioning of the industry or is in place for the benefit of workers, to accept any demand by using intimidation, coercion, pressure, threat, confinement or ouster from a place, dispossession, assault, physical injury or by such other methods; or
(f) commence, continue, instigate or incite others to take part in or expend or supply money or otherwise act in furtherance or support of an illegal strike or adopt go- slow measures; or
(g) carry any arms or weapons within the premises of an employer without any legal authority.

Unfair Labour practices on the part of employer: 

It has been defined in section 63of the Ordinance which is given below:
 No employer shall:
(a) impose any condition in a contract of employment seeking to restrain the rights of a person who is a party to such contract to join a trade union or continue his membership of a trade union; or
(b) refuse to employ or refuse to continue to employ any person on the ground that such person is or is not, a member or office-bearer of a trade union; or
(c) discriminate against any person in regard to any employment, promotion, condition of employment or working condition on the ground that such person is or is not, a member or office-bearer of a trade union; or
(d) dismiss, discharge, remove from employment or transfer a workman or injure him in respect of his employment by reason that the workman- (i) is or proposes to become a member or office-bearer of a trade union; or (ii) participates in the promotion, formation or activities of a trade union;
(e) induce any person to refrain from becoming, or to cease to be a member or office-bearer of a trade union, by conferring or offering to confer any advantage on, or by procuring or offering to procure any advantage for such person or any other person; or
(f) compel or attempt to compel any office-bearer of a collective bargaining agent to arrive at a settlement by using intimidation, coercion, pressure, threat, confinement to a place, physical injury, disconnection of water, power or telephone facilities or by such other methods; or
(g) interfere with or in any way influence the balloting provided for in section 20; or
(h) recruit any workman during the period of notice of strike under section 31 or during the currency of a strike which is not illegal except where the Conciliator has, being satisfied that complete cessation of work is likely to cause serious damage to the machinery or installations, permitted temporary employment of a limited number of workmen in the section where the damage is likely to occur; or
(i) close down the whole of an establishment in contravention of Standing Order 11A of the West Pakistan Industrial and Commercial Employment (Standing Orders) Ordinance, 1969 (West Pakistan Ordinance No VI of 1968); or (j) commence, continue, instigate or incite others to take part in, or expend or supply money or otherwise act in furtherance or support of an illegal lock-out.

Five basis used for calculating predetermined factory overhead rates

FOH predetermined rate is calculate on five bases which are as follows:

1. Materials costs
2. Direct labor cost
3. Direct labor hours
4. Machine hours
5. Units of production

1. Materials costs:

                                  We can calculate predetermined FOH rate on the bases of materials cost by the following formula:

                       Predetermined FOH rate= Estimated FOH ×100

                                                                          Materials cost

2. Direct labor cost:

                                    We can calculate FOH predetermined rate on the bases of direct labor cost, the formula is:

                           Predetermined FOH rate= Estimated FOH ×100

                                                                         Direct labor cost

3. Direct labor hours:

                                        If we calculate FOH rate predetermined on the bases of direct labor hours. The formula is:

                          Predetermined FOH rate= Estimated FOH 

                                                                         Direct labor hours

3. Machine hours:

                                        If we calculate FOH rate predetermined on the bases of machine  hours. The formula is:

                          Predetermined FOH rate= Estimated FOH 

                                                                           Machine hours

3. Units of Production:

                                        If we calculate FOH rate predetermined on the bases of Units of production. The formula is:

                          Predetermined FOH rate= Estimated FOH 

                                                             

                                                                     Units of production

Parts of a Business Letter

There are many parts to the business letter — some required, some optional. This chapter will review those parts and their order. The parts of the business letter follow:

1. Letterhead or Heading
2. Date
3. File Number (optional)
4. Confidential (optional)
5. inside Address
6. Attention Line (optional)
7. Salutation
8. Subject Line (optional)
9. Body of the Letter
10. Complimentary Close
11. Signature
12. Added Information (optional)
13. Postscript (optional)
14. Mailing Instructions (optional)

 Letterhead

Most business letters originating from a firm are written on the firm’s letterhead. If you are writing a personal business letter or your firm does not use letterhead, then you need to include your firm’s address in the heading.

 Date

Date is the compulsory element in a letter ,the date should be in a proper format to avoid confusions, it should be December 12/2012.it should not be like 12/12/2012.etc The standard dateline in the U.S.  is month/day/year: (March 15, 20XX).

 File Number

On occasion, you may wish to include the file number of the project, case or order that the letter refers to. The file number should be physically separated from the date by two spaces and from the part that follows (Confidential or Inside Address) by two spaces.

 Confidential

Use this word when the person to whom the letter is addressed is the only one who should read the letter. Physically separate the word from the rest of the letter by two lines. To assure confidentiality, include the word “Confidential” on the envelope.

 Inside Address

This should include the name of the person you are writing, the person’s title (if available), the name of the firm and the firm’s address. To whom the letter is send.

 Attention Line

The letter is addressed to the firm. For example, the attention line may say, “Attention: Head of Accounting.” It may also be used when you know the name of the person you are writing but are unsure of the title. The attention line may say, “Attention: Customer Service,” thus indicating to the person.

 Salutation

The salutation is used in all formats except the Simplified Letter and the Memo. The following are salutations used in American business letters:

• Dear Sir:

• Dear Madam: (may be followed by title, such as Dear Madam Chairperson

• Gentlemen:

• Ladies:

• Dear Mr. Khalid

• Dear Ms. Saral

• Ladies and Gentlemen:

• Dear Personnel Director: (a gender-free title)

• To Whom It May Concern: or TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN: (use this form as a last resort)

Caution: You must determine the appropriate choice, given your reader and the situation. If you are uncertain about your reader’s gender, avoid assuming gender in the salutation. Use your reader’s name whenever you know it. Researchers discovered that people are more likely to read a letter with their names in the salutation.

People don’t usually get upset if you don’t address them with the proper salutation, but they notice and appreciate it when you do.

One of the problems you may run into is writing to a person with a name that is not gender specific; for example, the name Terry. The simplest solution in the salutation is to say, “Dear Terry Lucas.” If you are addressing a group of people in general, such as the shipping department, do not assume they are all male. The old “Gentlemen:” is not acceptable. “Shipping Agents:” is preferred. The way around having to use a salutation when you are unsure of whom you are writing is to use the Simplified Letter .

 Subject Line

The subject line is most commonly used in the Simplified Letter. It announces the subject of the letter and provides a summary of your intent.

 Body of the Letter

This is where you make requests, provide information or reasons or reply to someone. It is the main part of the business letter .

 Complimentary Close

This varies in formality and is found in all business letters with the exception of the Simplified Letter and the Memo. The following complimentary closes

are in order of decreasing formality:

• Very truly yours,

• Respectfully,

• Sincerely yours,

• Cordially,

• Sincerely,

The most appropriate, in general situations, is the last.

 Signature

There should be four lines between the complimentary close (or the body in the Simplified Letter) and your typed name so there is room for your signature.

 Additional Information

If needed, this consists of the sender’s initials in capital letters followed by a colon, followed by the  typist’s initials in small letters. You may also find the abbreviations “Enc.” for enclosure and “cc:” or “xc:” for copies sent, followed by names of persons receiving the copies.

 Postscript

The “P.S.” highlights additional information that might have been placed in the letter but for some reason was not. Often used in sales, promotional or personal letters, the postscript can emphasize a request for action or consideration. It is often the first thing the recipient reads. Use it to entice or motivate your reader. Postscripts are especially effective in sales or form letters.

 Mailing Instructions

Use these to give the reader deadlines or pertinent information on mailing a reply.

As you look through the major formats it’s obvious that many of the parts listed above are not necessarily used in routine business correspondence. However, it helps to be aware of all of them in case you need to use any of them.